Hi,
Seeing all the debate on vit A Rice, I send in this comment by GRAIN.
GRAIN is a North-South organisation with excellent insights in the ag.
problems in Southern countries
wytze
GENETNL wrote:
>
> the development of genetically engineered rice that produces b-
> carotene has has fueled the debate about the suitability of silver
> bullet approaches to complex problems. Below you will find an article
> written by GRAIN and published in the March issue of Seedling. It
> investigates the underlying causes of Vitamin A - and other -
> malnutrition and gives examples how to solve problems with already
> existant, farm-based solutions making use and conserving the still
> existing rich biodiversity of rice-growing Asian countries. For the
> long version with full references check http://www.grain.org.
>
> Yours,
>
> Hartmut Meyer
>
> *****
>
> ENGINEERING SOLUTIONS TO MALNUTRITION
>
> by GRAIN
>
> Some 40% of the worldÕs people suffer from micronutrient
> deficiencies. The 'solution' to this problem is now being promised
> through genetic engineering. In the face of growing resistance to
> the first generation of genetically modified foodstuffs, Vitamin A or
> 'golden rice' provides a golden opportunity to restore biotechnology
> to public acceptability. Not only will it address a global public
> health problem, but it is being promised free to farmers. Monsanto
> has also been developing high beta-carotene mustard which it is
> targeting Ð for free Ð to poor farmers in the South. These nutrient-
> enhanced crops are receiving a good deal of attention, particularly
> in delivering the promise of genetic engineering in the guise of
> humanitarian cause. Too good to be true? Technical fixes such as
> these will only treat the symptoms of micronutrient deficiency and
> propagate the problem, which is caused by declining diversity in the
> food being produced and consumed.
>
> Despite improvements in global food supplies, malnutrition and hunger
> remains one of the most devastating problems facing society.
> Malnutrition caused by deficiencies in specific vitamins and minerals
> afflict some 40% of the worldÕs population, especially women and
> children. Ironically, the largest numbers of people suffering from
> micronutrient malnutrition live in South Asia, where a high diversity
> of micronutrient sources, such as fruits and vegetables, exist.
>
> Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is one of the leading causes of
> micronutrient malnutrition in developing countries. Historically,
> vitamin A was recognised to be important for the prevention of
> blindness. More recently, its role in helping to fight infections
> has come to light. Vitamin A helps prevent diseases such as
> diarrhea, respiratory ailments, tuberculosis, malaria and ear
> infections, and helps prevent transmission of Human Immunodeficiency
> Virus from mother to child. According to the World Health
> Organisation (WHO), around 2.8 million children under five years of
> age currently exhibit a severe clinical manifestation of vitamin A
> deficiency known as xerophthalmia. It has been demonstrated that
> vitamin A could lower childhood mortality by about one-third in many
> parts of the developing world. VAD is considered a serious public
> health problem and several high level initiatives have been launched
> with the goal of eliminating VAD in 2000. Progress has been made,
> but the goal is still a long way off.
>
> Deficiency of a single micronutrient seldom occurs in isolation. In
> many countries, malnutrition with significant health consequences
> results from deficiencies in zinc, vitamins C and D, folate,
> riboflavin, selenium and calcium , in addition to the three
> micronutrients to which so much attention is now given (vitamin A,
> iron and iodine). VAD is mostly prevalent amidst poverty,
> environmental deprivation and social disparity. It is considered as
> one of the components Ð and a minor component at that - of the
> syndrome of undernutrition Hence, in the context of multiple
> nutrient deficiencies and inter-relationships of nutrients, the use
> of a single nutrient to combat micronutrient malnutrition does not
> make sense.
>
> Vitamin A or retinol, is present exclusively in animal foods such as
> liver, milk and eggs. Fruits and vegetables contain provitamin A,
> such as beta-carotene and other carotenoids, which first need to be
> converted into retinol before the body can utilise them (see example
> in the table below). The origins of vitamin A deficiency in
> childhood can be traced to poor nutrition status of the mother during
> pregnancy and lactation, and inadequate intake of foods rich in
> either preformed or provitamin A by the infant after weaning and
> thereafter. A logical approach then to the prevention of vitamin A
> deficiency must seek to address these basic causes and not rely on
> technological fixes. Fortunately, the abundance of natural foods in
> the South should make such dietary improvements possible.
>
> Farms not pharmacies!
>
> Three measures are currently being employed worldwide to control
> vitamin A deficiency: supplementation, food fortification and dietary
> diversification. Most of the current strategies worldwide rely
> heavily on health interventions - usually the administration, at
> periodic intervals, of massive oral dosages of synthetic vitamin A
> supplements to children under three years of age. This strategy was
> pioneered in India in the late 1960Õs. What was originally envisaged
> as a short-term measure to dietary improvement has become the
> centerpiece of many current programs. UNICEF estimates that half of
> the children in the world at risk of vitamin A deficiency received at
> least one dose of vitamin A in 1998. The ease of supplementation
> has left research into and promotion of dietary measures in the
> background.
>
> This 'drug-based approach' to synthetic vitamin A distribution has
> received wide criticism, even from the very individuals who have
> pioneered the work. Some of the limitations cited based on the 30-
> year experience of India are: ineffectiveness in correcting VAD
> (especially in populations where milder signs of deficiency are
> widespread), the limited shelf-life of vitamin A and logistical
> problems in ensuring supply. Supplementation programs are often
> expensive and unsystematic, and coverage may be poor. There have
> been many calls for an alternative approach, addressing the root
> causes of the problem rather than treating the symptoms. The World
> Declaration and the Plan of Action on Nutrition, adopted by 159
> countries, at the International Conference on Nutrition jointly
> organized by the UNÕs Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) and WHO
> in 1992, states that strategies to combat micronutrient malnutrition
> should: "Ensure that sustainable food-based strategies are given
> first priority particularly for populations deficient in vitamin A
> and iron, favouring locally available foods and taking into account
> local food habits."
>
> The fortification of butter, margarine and sugar with vitamin A is
> already being implemented in some countries. It too has drawbacks.
> In most instances, food fortification is only feasible in countries
> that possess well-developed, efficiently monitored and properly
> regulated pharmaceutical and food processing sectors. Like
> supplementation, fortification does not lead to awareness building
> and changes in dietary habits, and its impact is limited to those who
> can access these fortified products. Dietary diversification, on the
> other hand, requires minimal foreign currency; it promotes the intake
> of a whole range of micronutrients other than vitamin A; it is
> sustainable; it fosters community and individual involvement; and it
> can even help stimulate the local economy.
>
> The Green Revolution: feast and famine
>
> The prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies now far exceeds protein
> and calorific malnutrition in Asia. Despite substantial increases in
> cereal supplies, which have contributed to increased intake of
> calorie- and protein-rich foods, the supply and consumption of foods
> rich in micronutrients have not increased proportionally, and in many
> cases have actually declined. Only 30 crops 'feed the world,'
> providing 95% of dietary energy and protein requirements. More than
> half of these come from wheat, rice and corn alone. For this reason,
> these three crops served as the cornerstone of the Green Revolution
> in the 1960Õs. Monocultures of these crops were encouraged , which
> resulted in the growth of a food supply that provided more
> macronutrients but did not provide the much-needed micronutrients,
> which were already in short supply. In some cases, the availability
> of and access to micronutrient rich food crops actually decreased for
> millions of poor people. Today, more than 2 billion people consume
> diets that are less diverse than 30 years ago, leading to
> deficiencies in micronutrients, especially iron, vitamin A, iodine,
> zinc and selenium.
>
> Varietal replacement of traditional varieties in the field, which is
> reported to be the major cause of genetic erosion around the world,
> also had its impact in home gardens. A farm household survey in the
> Republic of Korea, for example, revealed that out of 143 crops
> cultivated in home gardens in 1985, only around 26% of landraces
> remained cultivated by 1993. These results are disturbing since such
> home gardens have traditionally been important not only as
> conservation sites especially for vegetable crops, but also an
> important source of vitamins and minerals.
>
> A significant and consistent decline in per capita consumption of
> green leafy and yellow vegetables had been noted in Philippines. The
> same is true for vegetables, fruits, pulses and spices in Bangladesh
> (see graph above). This situation caused the Director of the
> Horticultural Research Center of Bangladesh Agricultural Research
> Institute to suggest that "Food patterns could have been changed and
> we could have attained self sufficiency in food and nutrition much
> earlier with 300 g cereal/capita per day as against achieving food
> self sufficiency today with 500 g cereals."
>
> It is becoming evident that the Green Revolution represented a trade-
> off between quantity and quality in peoplesÕ diets, especially
> amongst the poor. Even the International Rice Research Institute
> (IRRI) admits that the Green Revolution may have actually increased
> micronutrient malnutrition among the poor. But IRRI can not look
> beyond the Green Revolution model for a solution to this problem, and
> is looking to genetic engineering to get it out of the hole it has
> dug for itself. Like many other international organisations involved
> in agricultural development, IRRI sees the answer to micronutrient
> malnutrition in engineering the missing elements back into Green
> Revolution crops. Some of the most advanced research in this arena
> is on engineering vitamin A into rice and mustard plants. These
> vitamin A crops are being hailed as evidence that genetic engineering
> holds promise for the poor as well as the rich, and that transgenic
> crops can benefit humanity as well as generating profits for the gene
> giants. This new approach is expected by many to supplant existing
> strategies for dealing with VAD, hopefully overcoming their
> limitations.
>
> Engineering vitamin A into crops
>
> Vitamin A rice was showcased in Science in August 1999. This
> genetically-engineered rice produces beta-carotene in its endosperm,
> giving it the distinct yellow colour that affords it the name Ôgolden
> rice.Õ The rice was developed with funds from the Rockefeller
> Foundation and the European Commission. Since it has been developed
> outside the private sector, 'golden rice' has become a much-needed
> and timely public relations tool for the promoters of genetic
> engineering. At the same time, Monsanto had been developing a high
> beta-carotene mustard plant which it planned to offer to poor
> subsistence farmers around the world. Through the Global Vitamin A
> partnership and local stakeholders, Monsanto promised to develop
> appropriate varieties of crops for those areas in greatest need.
> This donation allowed Monsanto to make a strong case for the
> relevance of agricultural biotechnology to the problems faced by the
> worldÕs poorest, to get the technology adopted on the grounds of
> public good, and to counter the very bad reputation it had earned
> itself, particularly in Europe and India.
>
> 'Golden rice' is the product of two German research teams under the
> direction of Dr Ingo Potrykus of the Swiss Institute of Technology in
> Zurich, and Dr Peter Beyer of the University of Freiburg. The idea
> of genetically engineering beta-carotene into rice emerged nine years
> ago, in the light of UNICEF and WHO reports on the high incidence of
> VAD in countries where rice serves as a staple food. The researchers
> engineered a laboratory variety of japonica rice (Taipei 309, adapted
> to temperate weather in Europe) to convert a naturally-occurring
> hormone precursor into beta-carotene. The team has added three
> genes, two of which are new to genetic engineering and come from
> daffodils (Narcissus pseudonarcissus). The third comes from a
> bacterium, Erwinia uredovora, which has been already used by Kirin
> Brewery. The teams are also working to cross this new line with
> another rice line to increase its iron content.
>
> The amount of hype given to 'golden rice' seems a little premature
> given that only a handful of genetically engineered seeds have so far
> been developed. All that is certain is that some of the transformed
> seeds contain beta-carotene in the endosperm, but it is not yet clear
> whether or not it is available for absorption. Even if the rice
> proves to be a success, the beta-carotene trait still needs to be
> transferred to the indica rice varieties, the types grown in Asia.
> This work will be done by several of the International Agricultural
> Research Centres (IARCs), including the Philippine-based IRRI, the
> India-based ICRISAT and the Colombia-based CIAT where further cross-
> breeding and field testings will be done. IRRI, together with the
> Philippine Rice Research Institute, is set to transfer the golden
> trait to widely-grown varieties such as IR64.
>
> Vitamin A rice has a long way to go still. Success in the laboratory
> means little in the field. Transgenic plants which perform well in
> laboratories often fail in nature, especially if they contain not
> one, but three added gene-constructs. Environmental impact can only
> be speculated on at this point, and issues such as palatability and
> public acceptance may also pose problems. The whole project does not
> seem to have been thought through very well. PotrykosÕ and BeyerÕs
> teams contacted international institutions with experience in VAD,
> such as UNICEF, FAO and the WHO, only after the project was well
> underway. Had they done so prior to undertaking the research, the
> project might well never have happened. The research team has
> consisted of plant scientists and a nutritionist, and issues related
> to extension and public acceptance have not been addressed.
> Consumers may very well react against a rice which is yellow instead
> of white. If public education is needed, wouldnÕt it be better to
> use such efforts to promote dietary diversification which would
> improve overall nutrition rather than simply supplement a single
> vitamin?
>
> While the development of vitamin A rice seems to be well-intentioned,
> if perhaps misdirected, MonsantoÕs beta-carotene mustard comes from
> more questionable roots. Calgene, which was bought by Monsanto in
> 1996, first developed rapeseed (Brassica napus) with elevated
> carotenoid levels because it contained higher proportions of fatty
> acids, making it potentially more profitable. Unlike the Ôgolden
> riceÕ initiative, the objective was purely commercial. Transferring
> the technology to mustard (Brassica juncea), a close relative, was an
> afterthought.
>
> It seems unlikely that it is pure coincidence that MonsantoÕs idea to
> create beta-carotene mustard has come at a time when mustard, which
> is the most important oil crop in South Asia, is being pushed into
> the marketplace. Monsanto is present in the Indian seed market
> through its agreements with Mahyco and its ownership of Cargill.
> MonsantoÕs donation appears within the context of mustardÕs
> transformation into an international trade commodity and the
> companyÕs desperate attempts to gain credibility and support for its
> transgenic crops in India. Although the company is ready to share
> the technology with any interested party, only the new Delhi-based
> TATA Energy Research Institute is mentioned by Monsanto as a
> potential partner Ð hardly one of the "local stakeholdersÓ it talks
> about. It may take more than beta-carotene mustard for local farmers
> to trust the corporation they see as at least partially responsible
> for their own hardships.
>
> MonsantoÕs new R&D center at the Indian Institute of Science in
> Bangalore is responsible for transferring the beta-carotene
> technology from rapeseed into mustard varieties, which it hopes to do
> by the end of 2000. Field testing will take a further 2 to 3 years.
> Meanwhile, many questions remain. Since beta-carotenes are fat-
> soluble, Monsanto expects that the oil from its transgenic mustard
> will be readily absorbed by the human body. However, heat destroys
> beta-carotene, and mustard oil is most often consumed after cooking,
> so the beta-carotene needs to be stabilised somehow. Another
> drawback is that the modified rape seed oil is orange, which could
> affect public acceptance.
>
> Tangled up in patents
>
> Despite all the publicity, the promises of 'golden rice' and
> MonsantoÕs rapeseed are still far from being realised. One issue
> that has been largely beyond the scope of the press debates is that
> of intellectual property rights associated both to the Monsanto
> rapeseed and, perhaps less evidently, to the 'golden rice'. In the
> case of Monsanto, the company owns Ð through Calgene Ð the patent on
> the beta-carotene rapeseed (WO9806862), and on the promoter (napin
> promoter: US 5,420,034). It is bound to pay royalties to the
> developers of the transformation method it has used to produce the
> transgenic rapeseed and to Kirin Brewery for the carotenoid
> biosynthesis genes from the bacterium Erwinia uredovora (EP0393690).
>
> Monsanto has announced that it aims to provide the high beta-carotene
> mustard free of charge to poor and subsistence farmers "not fully
> participating in the world economy." However, what this means is not
> clear. What will be the limit for the sale of the rapeseed or its
> oil? How would such limitations affect the availability of the beta-
> carotene oil to the poor? Will they affect the purchase of the
> seeds or oil by large national or international corporations?
> Sources from MonsantoÕs R&D Institute say that while the project is
> philanthropic, the company has no clear policy to answer these
> questions.
>
> In the case of the 'golden rice,' its developers claim that it will
> likely be given free of charge to the farmers. Whether this claim
> will be realised is still up in the air given the patent hurdles it
> faces. Despite being funded by public sector, the 'golden rice' is
> to a large extent the product of private companies.
>
> The development of the rice has involved patented processes, genes
> and promoters, which amount to at least six previous patents (see
> table opposite). On top of these, the teams of Zurich and Freiburg
> have filed a patent application covering the insertion of the
> metabolic pathway to produce beta-carotene in seeds. The scientists
> involved claim this was to prevent other parties (corporations) from
> patenting the technology. If this is really the case, it would have
> been enough just to release the information into the public domain.
> Applying for the patent turns the Rockefeller Foundation and the
> European Commission into potential for-profit institutions.
> According to Beyer, the patent application that has been filed covers
> the insertion of the new metabolic path in any crop, not only rice.
> Rice will be the only crop freely available to farmers, and only
> under certain circumstances as specified in a contract between the
> ÔinventorsÕ and the IARCs transferring the genes for the Ôgolden
> riceÕ into tropical varieties.
>
> This is not the first agreement between private sector companies and
> IARCs to use and distribute patented materials. Ciba-Geigy (which
> merged with Sandoz to form Novartis) made Bt genes available to IRRI
> to develop rice, and the rice produced with this gene is freely
> available to rice producers in all countries except Australia,
> Canada, Japan, New Zealand, United States, and members of the
> European Patent Convention as of 1994. Plant Genetic Systems has
> provided the Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) with Bt genes and
> technologies, and the results of collaborative research are freely
> available for developing countries, provided the recipient does not
> appropriate them unfairly or seek profit through their
> commercialisation in industrial countries. The control must remain,
> after all, in the hands of the patent holder.
>
> The teams behind the 'golden rice' believe that, if only for the sake
> of their public image, no company will prevent them from using their
> patented processes, genes or promoters to make rice freely available
> for the poor. But it is a complicated arena because a conflict of
> interest could easily arise for the companies involved, particularly
> given that they have only made their technologies freely available
> for use under certain circumstances. However philanthropic the
> intentions of the project, the products of genetic engineering are so
> entangled in IPR issues and directed towards the profit motive,
> conflicts are almost certain to arise. Charitable initiatives may
> easily be corrupted and derailed because of the private sectorÕs
> ownership of key genes and patents.
>
> Will biotech solve the problem?
>
> The unveiling of 'golden rice' is giving impetus to the application
> of genetic engineering to combat micronutrient malnutrition. But it
> is highly unlikely that poor people stand to benefit from this
> strategy. This 'band aid' approach will merely perpetuate the
> declining quality of food grown under the industrial agricultural
> system at the expense of fruits, vegetables, and underutilized and
> wild crops. Without shifting the focus of nutrition efforts towards
> a more diverse agricultural base, there is no doubt that
> micronutrient deficiency will persist. The real impacts of vitamin A
> crops will be:
>
> - Reducing dietary and nutritional diversity
> Focusing on engineering micronutrients into staples instead of
> promoting natural sources will further skew agricultural research and
> development and consequently food availability further away from
> diversity. It will perpetuate the commodity bias towards staples or
> a limited range of so-called functional foods such as high beta-
> carotene oil. This will exacerbate genetic erosion, decimate farming
> systems and reduce nutritional diversity.
>
> - Decreasing overall nutritional status
> The very narrow target of just providing a single micronutrient such
> as vitamin A into commonly consumed crops will do little to overcome
> micronutrient deficiencies. The transfer of an exotic gene into a
> monoculture crop can do little to make up for the dietary
> deficiencies of those suffering from monoculture malnutrition. The
> nutritional value of a combination of rice and Moringa (drumstick)
> leaves is far greater than that of the 'golden rice'. Providing only
> a single micronutrient via food to a population which is deficient
> in a whole range of nutrients could be considered unethical,
> especially where the whole range can easily be obtained easily from
> locally-available fruits and vegetables and in wild and underutilised
> crops.
>
> - Perpetuating the problem
> The claim that Ôgolden riceÕ or beta-carotene mustard will help
> eliminate VAD in the South has great appeal. Yet the genetic
> engineering approach erroneously assumes that VAD exists due to a
> general lack of vitamin A food sources. This type of intervention
> tends to maintain the status quo, where rice remains to be the
> predominant food in poor peoplesÕ diets, instead of encouraging
> people to diversify their food sources. Instead of solving the
> problem, it merely masks the shortcomings of the Green Revolution and
> perpetuates the problem.
>
> -Promoting technical fixes again
> This one-dimensional technical fix approach to VAD is reminiscent of
> the Green Revolution paradigm. This was another techno-fix solution
> to a complex problem: that of poverty and hunger. 'Golden rice' is
> another simple, universal solution to the problems of the poor
> decided upon and developed by scientists from the North. It comes as
> no great surprise that the Rockefeller Foundation, one of the main
> architects of the Green Revolution, has been financing this approach
> to solve a problem which it helped to create in the first place.
>
> - Accessibility and equity
> The "poor" are a major target for vitamin A crops. Yet many of the
> poor, particularly women, have not benefited from Green Revolution
> crops, so it is unlikely they will benefit from the next wave. Any
> direct benefit to the poorest, who by definition have little
> purchasing power thus generate little of a market, is to be
> generated as a side effect, or an exception to the rule, upon which
> the poor do not have any control. Scarce resources should be
> directed, instead, to policies that have the poor as their main
> objective, not as incidental beneficiaries.
>
> - Dietary diversification or uniformity?
> Although improved dietary habits, particularly the increased
> production and consumption of beta-carotene-rich foods, have long
> been advocated as the only acceptable long-term solution to combat
> VAD, very few concrete steps have been taken in this direction in the
> past twenty years. In the words of the 1991 laureate of the World
> Food Prize, Dr. Nevin Scrimshaw: "It is ironic that some of the
> worst concentrations of xerophthalmia and blindness due to vitamin A
> deficiency occur in populations surrounded by abundant sources of the
> vitamins and minerals in local vegetables and fruits, yet, no country
> has yet mounted a successful campaign to solve the Vitamin A problem
> in this way".
>
> Breaking the cycle
>
> Supplementation and fortification programmes treat the symptoms but
> not the underlying cause of micronutrient malnutrition. Poor quality
> diets consisting primarily of staple foods are the underlying cause
> of micronutrient malnutrition. 'Golden rice' is merely an extension
> of the supplementation approach and also fails to address the cause.
> Even worse, it actually perpetuates malnutrition because it fails to
> address peoplesÕ requirements of other minerals and vitamins, which
> would be met by adopting a dietary approach to VAD.
>
> Improving dietary diversity by stimulating the production and
> consumption of micronutrient-rich foods is the only sane and
> sustainable approach to overcoming micronutrient deficiencies. There
> is a great scope for improving direct household supplies to such
> foods in rural and urban areas (see box on p 17). The real cause of
> VAD is that vulnerable populations are not empowered enough to access
> these natural sources of vitamin A. This should be the starting
> point of any strategy to combat VAD. Diversity is the basis of
> balanced nutrition. Agricultural and nutritional policies should
> promote the availability of micronutrient-rich foods and targeted
> nutrition education programs should help increase their consumption.
> Only by providing a diversity of food sources in the field and by
> increasing awareness of foodÕs relevance not just to fill the bowl
> with calories but to improve nutritional well-being, can we break
> away from the vicious cycle of hunger and malnutrition.
>
> Main Sources:
>
> - C Gopalan et al (1998), "Micronutrient malnutrition in SAARC," NFI
> Bulletin, India
> - BA Underwood et al (1999), Micronutrient Malnutrition: policies and
> programs for control and their implications. Ann. Review of
> Nutrition, Vol 19.
> - FAO-WHO (1992), Nutrition - the global challenge. InternÕl
> Conference on Nutrition, Dec 5-11, Rome.
> - H Bouis (1998) Plant breeding: a new approach for solving the
> widespread, costly problem of micronutrient malnutrition, IFPRI
> - Personal communication with KK Narayanan, Monsanto R&D Centre in
> Bangalore
> - Xudong Ye et al (2000), "Engineering the Provitamin A (b-carotene)
> Biosynthetic Pathway into (Carotenoid-Free) Rice Endosperm",
> Science, Vol 287, pp303-305)
> - Interview with Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer.
> - Florianne Koechlin (2000) "The Ôgolden riceÕ Ð a big illusion?"
> No Control On Life Mail-out 73, February 2000
>
> -
> -
> --
>
> |*********************************************|
> | GENET |
> | European NGO Network on Genetic Engineering |
> | |
> | Hartmut MEYER (Mr) |
> | Reinhaeuser Landstr. 51 |
> | D - 37083 Goettingen |
> | Germany |
> | |
> | phone: +49-551-7700027 |
> | fax: +49-551-7701672 |
> | email: genetnl@xs4all.be |
> |*********************************************|
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